Its Effects on the Lives of Women: Chinese Foot Binding

Since the beginning of civilization, various cultures have had different standards of beauty. In Thailand, the Kayans considered long necks to be beautiful. In America, blond hair and large breasts have been noted as most appealing. And in China, small feet were considered attractive. For the past thousand years, women of China have been taking part in the practice of foot binding (Wolf). It is said that the practice of foot binding started in the Sung dynasty, and was implemented to “imitate an imperial concubine who was required to dance with her feet bound” (Foot-Binding Custom Causes Disabilities In Chinese Women). So, when a girl reaches the age of three,

“most of her toes would be fractured and her feet bound tightly with linen strips to impede their growth. The ideal was to create a 3-inch ‘lotus foot’ by limiting growth to just a few inches. The binding forced a girl's toes down toward the soles of her feet to form a concave shape” (DeHoff).

While small feet are considered attractive in the Chinese culture, foot binding ultimately was a symbol of wealth, and left the woman’s feet permanently deformed.
First off, having one’s feet bound in China was a sign of the upper class. By binding the woman’s feet, the bones would become deformed into a severe arch, making the bones very brittle and easily broken. This caused the upper class women much pain. While the pain was a major factor, an equally pressing issue was that the feet could easily become infected from the constant breaking of bones. Women with bound feet could not walk for long distances without needing assistance. Those of the working class could not bind their feet because they needed to do manual labor to earn income for themselves and their families. This meant that those who needed to work for a living could not perform strenuous work with bound feet, so this became a symbol of the wealthy in China (DeHoff).

Ultimately, foot binding resulted in a woman’s feet becoming permanently deformed. The practice of foot binding started in the 10th century and ended in the early 20th century around the year 1911. The initial deformities included severe arches, brittle and easily broken foot bones, and most likely lead to infection. These initial deformities contributed to less freedom in mobility in respect to the fact that walking long distances was not possible; dancing and running, which are normal child activities, was also hindered. Those who suffered from foot binding found that, later on in life, they were more likely to have suffered falls than non-foot bound women. Also, the bone density in their hips was much less that that of a normal woman. It was also frequent for previously foot-bound women to suffer from osteoporosis. It was also noted that those with bound feet needed more assistance as the got older; it was difficult for women of bound feet to go into a squatting position, which hinders normal toilet using abilities (DeHoff). According to a study conducted by the University of California at San Francisco, "As the practice waned, some girls' feet were released after initial binding, leaving less severe deformities” (Lim).

And finally, although the primitive practice of foot binding “was banned nearly a century ago by the Chinese government, […] the practice took years to die out, and a few of its victims -- most far older than seventy -- can still be found today” (DeHoff). Most standards of beauty come with a cost, but at what point does the cost jeopardize the health of beauty-seeker? It is definitely clear that while foot binding was a standard for the wealthy to show off their status that deformities prove to have detrimental effects on the lives and health of the beauty-seeker.








Works Cited

DeHoff, Elizabeth. “Traditions of Foot Binding in China.” About.com: Shoes.
7 March 2008. Roosevelt University Writing Lab. 12 January 2009 .

Foot-Binding Custom Causes Disabilities In Chinese Women. 4 November
1997. Doctor's Guide Publishing Limited. 13 January 2009 .

Lim, Louisa. “Painful Memories for China's Footbinding Survivors.” NPR.org.
19 March 2007. Roosevelt University Writing Lab. 13 January 2009 .

Wolf, Naomi. The Beauty Myth: How Images of Beauty are Used Against Women. New York: Doubleday, 1991.

Sexually Arousing: The Penile Plethysmograph

In Czechoslovakia during the 1950s, Kurt Freund developed the penile plethysmograph (PPG) to stop drafters from falsifying that they were homosexuals to evade military service. The PPG is a device that gauges blood course within the penis when being exposed to image stimuli. This tool determines the intensity of sexual arousal while the subject is subjected to sexually evocative photos, movies, or audio. When the PPG was first invented, it used pornographic photos to illicit a response; however, nowadays it is more common to use non-pornographic stimuli in order to “[shift] the focus to the general arousal patterns rather than a specific arousal point” (Penile Plethysmograph). Over time, the PPG has found many uses such as screening in regards to erectile dysfunction, psychological experiments, law enforcement, and could possibly become a reliable technique for finding individuals with pedophilia potential.

Of the many purposes of the PPG, one is in screening organic versus psychogenic erectile dysfunction (Penile Plethysmograph). Virilplant defines erectile dysfunction as “the inability of the male to obtain and or maintain penile erection sufficient for…penetration.” According to WebMeds, “it is estimated that 10 to 20 million men suffer [from] erectile dysfunction in the United States. Erectile dysfunction can generally be categorized as organic or psychological. Organic dysfunction means that the problem lies within physiology—whereas psychological erectile dysfunction means that the body is functioning normal but the mind is hindering normal function whether it is due to anxiety or depression. While both are classified as erectile dysfunction, the causes for the sexual disorder are polar opposite. The PPG, by bombarding the affected with images, are related to the mind, and which are related to the body by how much blood enters the penis, if images illicit a sexual response, how long the engorgement lasts, and whether fetishes or sexual orientation are the cause of their inability to maintain an erection. Since the treatment is completely different depending on which cause for the disorder one possesses, the PPG is an important tool to doctors and psychologists.

Another function of Penile Plethysmography is in psychological experiments. For the most part when using classical conditioning, the behavioral psychologist can see or measure the results of his or her conditioning through response. For example, when Skinner conditioned a child to fear a white rabbit, the response was seen: fear. When Pavlov conditioned a dog to salivate at the sound of a bell, the response was able to be measured through a device attached to the dog’s mouth. In regards to sexual conditioning, there was no way to gauge or precisely measure what was conditioned. In a recent experiment, subjects were conditioned to demonstrate sexual arousal in reaction to images of shoes. This was accomplished by presenting images of the shoes which were preceded by photos of naked women. With the invention of the PPG, it is now possible for psychologists to expand their methods of measuring and data collection. Instead of utilizing a survey or Likert scale, measurements can now be taken that are not as biased or subjective which opens a new door to the future of Psychology.

Also, the PPG is utilized in law enforcement. Wikipedia makes the distinction that “the PPG is not intended to be used as a guilt or innocence tool, but rather as a supplemental device to add to a complete psychosexual evaluation” (Penile Plethysmograph). There are two major methods to gage erectile responses. One can measure the volume changes in the penis or one can monitor differences in penile circumference. Measuring penile circumference is the most accepted practice in the psychiatric/psychological communities. When using the PPG, “the gauge is fitted around the penis after being examined to ensure proper functioning” (ForensicEvidence.com). Then, when the device is in place, a baseline level of arousal is determined. Visual and Auditory stimuli are presented and the increase in circumference is recorded. The first time the PPG caught attention from the public was in December 2003 with the trial of basketball star Kobe Bryant (CNN.com). Kobe Bryant was charged with sexual assault and the state of Colorado would require evaluations with the PPG following Bryant’s conviction (Penile Plethysmograph). So, law enforcement has found use in the PPG in finding progress after conviction to gauge progress in therapy and mindset.

And now with the uprising of pedophiles selecting jobs in the churches, school districts, and after school activities in the community, the PPG would be a great screening technique. Using the John Jay Report, it was found that accusations were raised against a total of 4,392 priests between the years 1950 and 2002 (John Jay Report). This statistic does not include the many other accused pedophiles found in school districts and after school activities. Ultimately “penile plethysmography is a test utilized to make subjective determinations about an individual's psychological condition with regard to certain sexual disorders and deviant behavior in the male” which would make an accurate device for screening potential pedophilia. This device has “been used in many states when evaluating convicted sex offenders” (Penile Plethysmograph) so why not require it for those who seek jobs relating to children. In regards to biases with the test toward males, “[an] equivalent procedure for women, vaginal photoplethysmography, measures blood through the walls of the vagina, which researchers claim increases during sexual arousal” (Penile Plethysmograph). A PPG is a biological lie detector, and while tests are not 100% foolproof, the institution of the PPG would bring about a decrease in child molestation within communities.

However, there are still some flaws to be worked out in the test before it could be concrete enough to be considered valid to restrict certain people that fail the PPG in relation to jobs dealing with to children. Before the test could be implemented there would have to be standardization for the test. As of today, those giving the test can choose their own pictures and audio stimuli for the specific cases. There would have to be a devised set of stimuli that would be a constant for all test takers. Also critics argue that some can control their arousal levels, however, the PPG is so precise that it can detect arousal that even the patient can not detect. These two kinks are being dealt with now, so screening for potential pedophiles is somewhere in the near future.

The major issue in making the penile plethysmograph screening a reality is the right to privacy in the United States. A person has a right to keep their sexual orientation and preferences out of the view of the public. However, homosexuality and heterosexuality are not against the law whereas pedophilia is. For example, if there is probable cause that one is under the influences of drugs or alcohol, police have the right to perform tests to prove or disprove their inclinations. Also, if one is found guilty of having alcohol or drugs in their system, the law can require random drug screenings which is not considered invasion of privacy in the eyes of the law. Testing with the PPG would be a precaution for further observation. Pedophilia is an action—and if a teacher does not act on their sexual urges, there would be no need to remove the teacher, coach, or Boy Scout leader from his position. Random screenings would be the result of the PPG and more caution toward certain individuals that are prone to pedophilia. Another example is the person that is told they have a genetic trait that makes them more susceptible to obesity. Close monitoring and outside help prevents the possibility of obesity. If a doctor screened a male for pedophile-like tendencies, then treatment such as behavioral therapy could be instituted at an early stage to monitor behavior and make sure children are not being harmed. The penile plethysmograph has come a long way from being a primitive, non-reliable device that has the potential to change the world. Maybe it won’t take center stage during our life-time, but the possibility is out there.

Separated at Birth: The Benefits and Detriments of Male Circumcision

As far back as 3000 BC, Egyptians and Aztecs began performing circumcision for purposes of hygiene (Circumcision - History and Recent Trends). A few centuries later, the Old Testament (Genesis 17:10-11) proclaimed “…You shall be circumcised in the flesh of your foreskin, and it shall be a sign of the covenant between [God] and you” (Reading the Old Testament). Then, the procedure gained popularity as a routine surgery in America in the late nineteenth century when in 1896 a very popular parenting book entitled All About Baby recommended circumcision for most boys to “halt the vile habit of masturbation” (Mothers Who Think). Nowadays, sixty percent of American males are circumcised in the United States (Infant Male Circumcision is not in the Best Interests of the Health & Rights of the Child). While there are some minor arguable benefits to circumcision such as reduced risks of urinary tract infections, cancer of the penis, transmitting STDs, there is still the possibility of trauma to the infant, infections, and deformities of the penis, not to mention sex and health risks as adults.

In the U.S., over 1.25 million [male] infants are annually circumcised; that’s more than 3,300 babies each day and one child every 26 seconds (Infant Male Circumcision is not in the Best Interests of the Health & Rights of the Child). In males, circumcision is a surgical procedure that removes some or all of the foreskin from the penis. Most male infants are circumcised at birth in the hospital where they are born. Others are circumcised as part of a religious ceremony. The possible benefits to circumcision are reduced risks of urinary tract infections, reduced risk of penile cancer, and reduced risk of transmitting STDs.

Firstly, it is true that circumcision does reduce the risks of urinary tract infections; however, studies find that urinary tract infections are only reduced during the infant’s first year of life. Secondly, it is proposed that circumcision reduced the risk of penile cancer. According to VHI Healthcare, penile cancer is an “extremely rare cancer” (VHI Healthcare). Also, VHI Healthcare goes on to state that “good personal hygiene is equally protective [against penile cancer as circumcision]” (VHI Healthcare). And thirdly, it is believed that men who are circumcised have less of a chance of transmitting and contracting STDs. This theory is true to a certain extent because according to Maggie Fox of Reuters.com, “sexual intercourse may cause tiny tears in the foreskin, allowing [viruses] into the bloodstream” (Fox). However it is also stated that if a man uses condoms or not is more “important in STD prevention than whether or not he is circumcised.” So while these benefits to a certain extent are valid, the American Academy of Pediatrics states that “the benefits of circumcision are not significant enough to recommend circumcision as a routine procedure” (VHI Healthcare).

In addition to the benefits of circumcision, there are also a number of detriments. Some of the detriments include trauma and shock to the infant, irritation and infection, deformities of the penis, and absence of normal function of the penis. First of all, one major detriment of circumcision is trauma and shock to the infant. A recent study conducted by a group of Canadian researchers concluded that circumcision has “long lasting traumatic effects” on the infant. Researchers “tested 87 infants at 4 months and 6 months of age. The boys who had been circumcised were more sensitive to pain than the uncircumcised boys. Differences between groups were significant regarding (1) facial action, (2) crying time, and (3) assessments of pain.” The researchers believe that "neonatal circumcision may induce long-lasting changes in infant pain behavior because of alterations in the infant’s central neural processing of painful stimuli” (Taddio). After being circumcised, the open wound is left confined inside a diaper. The diaper prevents proper airflow to the wound which can interfere with the healing process. Furthermore, the diaper gets filled with urine and feces more than a couple times a day, which can lead to irritation and infection if any of the urine and/or feces gets inside the open wound. Also, due to complications and/or a lack of proper training, botched circumcisions can lead to penile deformities. Most deformities include portions of the foreskin that needed to be removed but were not which can cause psychological issues and self-consciousness. The psychological problems can lead to erectile dysfunction. However, some botched circumcisions require the male to have corrective surgery in order to be able to obtain an erection. Furthermore, there have been a few reports of extreme cases where an entire penis needed to be surgically removed.

In addition to the trauma and shock to the infant, irritation and infection, and deformities of the penis, there is also an absence of normal function of the penis with circumcision. The first function of the foreskin is in protection. Like the female clitoris, the head of the penis is intended by nature to be a protected internal organ. When the foreskin is removed, the head of the penis is no longer protected so keratinization (callusing) occurs which causes a loss of sexual sensation and pleasure.

Also, gliding action is affected when the foreskin is removed. During sexual activity, the foreskin and glans work in together to create a complete sexual response. So a normal sexual response is not happening. Normal functioning also includes the non-abrasive gliding of the penis in and out of itself within the vagina which facilitates smooth and gratifying intercourse. Furthermore, without this gliding action, the corona of the circumcised penis can function as a one-way valve, dragging vaginal lubricants out into the drying air and making artificial lubricants essential for non-painful intercourse.

Thirdly, the frenulum connects the inner foreskin to the underside of the glans of the penis. For many intact men, the penile frenulum is a male "G-spot" that is highly pleasurable when repeatedly stretched and relaxed during sexual activity. Depending on the surgical method used, the frenulum is partially to completely destroyed by circumcision. And finally, the foreskin contains several feet of blood vessels, including the frenular artery and branches of the dorsal artery. The loss of this rich vascularization interrupts normal blood flow to the shaft and glans of the penis, damaging the natural function of the penis and altering its development.

According to VHI Healthcare, medically, the only valid reasons for male circumcision are Phimosis, Paraphimosis, and Balanitis which are all disorders where the foreskin hinders proper blood flow throughout the penis. Also, penile cancer that affects the foreskin is cause for removal of the foreskin. And finally painful sex due to improper retraction of the foreskin is also means for circumcision (VHI Healthcare). But usually these are not the reasons that male circumcisions are performed. The detriments of male circumcision vastly outweigh the benefits. Furthermore, male circumcision is a procedure that should not be performed on all males. The procedure should only be performed if there is a problem affecting the foreskin and the blood flow of the penis, penile cancer, or if there is pain caused by the foreskin. Parents should be provided with more information on circumcision before they decide to have the surgical procedure performed.

Going Green: Saving the Planet one Car at a Time

For the past couple of years, global warming has become an important issue in today’s society. Throughout the United States, the Going Green Campaign draws more attention to the detriments global warming brings to the balance of our eco system. As the Earth’s average temperature is rising, glaciers are liquefying, hurricanes are hitting more frequently, and droughts and floods are destroying the land, and global warming is the culprit behind these environmental disasters (Allianz). With this newfound conviction to end global warming, many new innovations are available to aid in conserving energy. One major contribution from car manufacturers has been the introduction of the Hybrid car. Hybrid car engines reduce contaminants that contribute to global warming by one-third (National Resource Defense Council). With the Hybrid being a cross between a gasoline-powered car and an electric car, this technological novelty produces less pollution for the environment by reducing tailpipe emissions and improving mileage which contributes to the efforts to end global warming (How Hybrid Cars Work).

Remarkably, the Hybrid car gets around twenty to thirty more miles per gallon than standard automobiles. With the Hybrid car, mileage efficiency can be enhanced by having a smaller engine, lighter parts, and by reducing the number of cylinders. According to Nice and Layton, “composite materials like carbon fiber or lightweight metals like aluminum and magnesium can be used to reduce weight” in the Hybrid car’s structure (How Hybrid Cars Work). “A lighter vehicle” like the Hybrid “uses less energy each time you accelerate or drive up a hill” (How Hybrid Cars Work) which in turn will increase gas mileage. Also, the Hybrid car has a smaller engine which helps extend mileage. Most automobiles need a moderately large engine to create a sufficient amount of energy in order to rapidly accelerate. By making the engine smaller, it is more energy efficient. Furthermore, larger engines usually have additional cylinders, and each cylinder uses fuel every time the engine fires, even if the car is not in motion. So by constructing the Hybrid car with a smaller engine, making it have lighter parts, and lessening the number of cylinders, less gas per mile is achieved. By being able to use less gas per mile because of their design, Hybrid cars add to the fight against global warming.

While the Hybrid car gets more miles to the gallon, it also reduces tailpipe emissions such as carbon dioxide. According to Nice and Layton, the only requirements an automobile must meet to be marketed is it has to (1) “drive at least three hundred miles before re-fueling,” (2) “be refueled quickly and easily,” and (3) “keep up with the other traffic on the road” (How Hybrid Cars Work). While a gasoline-powered automobile meets these standards, it generates a hefty amount of pollution. An electric automobile, on the other hand, produces almost no pollution; however, it only can reach between fifty and one-hundred miles between recharges. By combining the gas-powered and electric car, the Hybrid is a “compromise.” It attempts to considerably “reduce the emissions of a gas-powered car while overcoming the shortcomings of an electric” (How Hybrid Cars Work). This is vital because from their tailpipes, cars release a pollutant called carbon dioxide. Scientists believe that the carbon dioxide emitted from cars contributes to global warming. Furthermore, an automobile that burns two times as much gas adds twice as much carbon dioxide in to the environment (How Hybrid Cars Work). So, Hybrid cars are aiding in the stop of global warming by reducing carbon dioxide tailpipe emissions by having a more energy efficient car.

In order to help cut global warming pollution, it is vital to incorporate conserving energy into a daily routine. Nowadays, the total carbon dioxide annually dumped into the atmosphere is one ton per person (Global Warming). Every time a more eco friendly product is purchased, it is contributing to the fight against global warming. Biodegradable and reusable products, even though small steps, assist the fight. Even a compact fluorescent light bulb when chosen over an incandescent bulb, keep nearly seven hundred pounds of carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere (Natural Defense Council). Like the compact fluorescent light bulb, Hybrid cars are just one more step toward helping the eco system and one more step toward immensely contributing to the efforts to end global warming.

Happiness is Prozac: Changing Concepts of the American Dream

Americans used to be entertained by a flying nun and a talking horse; we are so sophisticated now watching people marry strangers and eat bugs for money (Degeneres 2003). Life has gone from Father Knows Best to stay-at-home dads (Maasik 27). God favors us. We are a fast food nation; McDonalds and Taco Bell have replaced home-cooked meals. The logo Starbucks makes us feel socially accepted after paying $4 for a urine-sized cup of coffee. More money is spent funding research for erectile dysfunction than a cure for Alzheimer’s; so a bunch of old men will have erections, but because of the Alzheimer’s, won’t know what they are used for (Johnston 2006). American women see their plastic surgeons more than their husbands; fake boobs are like Nazis: they don’t laugh, they don’t smile, they are just hard and angry looking. When a patient asks, “Doctor, what are these lumps under my eyes?!” and the doctor replies “Those are your tits Madame,” plastic surgery has gone too far. Books and writings are now Shakespeare with a strap-on (Williams 2002). More people vote for who they want kept on American Idol than who will be running our country (Johnston 2006). Procrastination is the American way (Degeneres 2003) along with wealth, obesity, and materialism. Now we have ADHD, OCD, ADD---all these three to four letter abbreviations because we don’t have the time or patience to say the whole word; in other parts of the world, we don’t have all these subtypes of diseases, we just have crazy people (Degeneres 2003). Kindness is considered sexual harassment. Monogamy is laughable, and divorce rates are over fifty percent. Only thirty to forty percent of Americans reach Paiget’s formal operational stage; only thirty to forty percent of Americans can think abstractly and apply the abstract concepts to concrete examples (Johnston 2006). We now have Go-Gurt…yogurt for people on the go; was there a mobility problem with yogurt? (Degeneres 2003) Individuality has come full circle and made us all the same by trying to be different. Only in the United States is anal floss (or as women like to refer to them as to make them feel sexier: thongs) a marketable product. Coca-Cola is the American beverage. Barbie is not just a toy anymore; it is a style for young girls (Maasik 276). I wonder if Hitler would have succeeded if he would have made a doll of his ideal person; would Jews run to buy blonde hair dye and blue contacts? Cell phones are the new diaphragm. Commercials used to be six minutes long telling us how good cigarettes and alcohol were. We are a Prozac nation (Degeneres 2003). We don’t have anxiety like we believe we do; go follow some pigmy around that is being chased by a lion…now that’s stress; you won’t find a pigmy on Zoloft (Degeneres 2003). The city-upon-a-hill nation has been burned to the ground and it is a race to trample everyone to be on top. So many Americans are so obese that South West Airlines makes overweight passengers purchase two seats in order to accommodate their “horizontally challenged” ness (Williams 2002). Laziness is king, morals are overrated, and Chihuahuas are accessories that defy all of Darwin’s rules of natural selection. Through Charles Dickens’ detailed portrayal of characters—Sydney Carton, and Lucie and Charles Darnay, Dickens challenges the superficiality and self-centeredness of the American Dream by highlighting redeeming selfless qualities and condemning self-absorbedness.

There is much debate between authors on whether or not Sydney Carton was portrayed by Charles Dickens as the Jesus Christ figure in the novel A Tale of Two Cities. “Moral conversion lies at the heart of many Dickens novels” (Hardy 39) and is most prevalent in the character of Sydney Carton and “we know that rebirth through death [is] the essential Christian paradox” (Marshall 46) however, Sydney Carton did not resemble Jesus Christ in all aspects. Jesus Christ lived a humble and good natured life up until his crucifixion. Sydney Carton on the other hand was an alcoholic and a bad natured man. Sydney Carton did not heal the sick, change the world, or save the followers of God, yet Sydney Carton is compared repeatedly with Jesus Christ because of the ultimate sacrifice. Therefore, Sydney Carton embodies the American Dream. Americans are lazy corner cutters who have gone from prestigious producers to gluttonous consumers. Americans dream no longer of building a foundation on nothing, but vegging on a couch and waiting to hear those seven lucky numbers called on the television screen. Sydney Carton lived a sinful life like most modern Americans indulging in sex, alcohol, pride, materialism, and gluttony. Sydney Carton was considered “saved” by his American readers for sacrificing his life so that Lucie Manette and Charles Darnay could live happily ever after and most American’s believe this because of his ultimate sacrifice which in Sydney Carton’s case was a quick fix to erase all the sinning he did earlier in life. Therefore Sydney Carton is the American dream…live a sinful life and procrastinate and later right before death, live a virtuous life and add in a good deed to be saved.

Charles Dickens’ A Tale of Two Cities was transformed into a movie in the year 1935 under the direction of the infamous Jack Conway. The movie was practically identical to the text, except for a few key differences surrounding actor Ronald Coleman’s character, Sydney Carton. The original novel, A Tale of Two Cities, basically revolves around and is the story of Dr. Manette. In the trailer of the movie A Tale of Two Cities, the plot summary reads as follows:
An elaborate adaptation of Dickens' classic tale of the French Revolution. Dissipated lawyer Sydney Carton defends emigre Charles Darnay from charges of spying against England. He becomes enamored of Darnay's fiancée, Lucie Manette, and agrees to help her save Darnay from the guillotine when he is captured by Revolutionaries in Paris (Maasik 563).

Director Jack Conway’s approach put Sydney Carton at the center focal point of his movie. In the opening credits, well-known actor Ronald Coleman’s name was listed first. Also, in Dickens’ novel, A Tale of Two Cities, Charles Dickens made no mention of Sydney Carton being affiliated with the Christian religion. Sydney Carton was a drunk with no intention of sobering up his ways. Also, blatantly obvious is the concept that “Carton and Darnay’s fates [were] entwined from their first meeting” (Gross 22). Sydney Carton was an individual who did not particularly care for Charles Darnay despite the fact that he looked virtually identical. In Charles Dickens’ A Tale of Two Cities, Sydney Carton states:
…and at the end of the same day Carton stares at his own image in the glass and upbraids it: ‘Why should you particularly like a man who resembles you? There is nothing in you to like: you know that. Ah, confound you!...Come on, and have it out in plain words! You hate the fellow’ (Dickens 22).

Sydney Carton’s only reason for making the ultimate sacrifice was to be remembered fondly by the lovely Lucie Manette since he could not be with her because she chose Charles Darnay. However, in director Jack Conway’s interpretation of A Tale of Two Cities on Christmas Eve, Sydney Carton attends a Catholic Church service with Lucie Manette. Jack Conway was trying to portray Sydney Carton as more of a religious figure to make a parallel between Jesus Christ and Carton so that he could win the hearts of many giving up his life for Charles Darnay to live with the love of his life: Lucie Manette. Then, near the end of the movie, Carton was not seen highly intoxicated and alluded to the fact that Sydney Carton was changing his ways by sobering up. Then, director Jack Conway completely leaves out the conversation between Sydney Carton expressing his feelings toward Lucie Manette with their conversation as to make Sydney Carton seem more like a virgin as Jesus Christ was made out to be. And lastly, before Sydney Carton was seen going to make his ultimate sacrifice, Carton is juxtaposed with a Bible verse reading “I am the resurrection and the life” hanging on the wall making his seem like he was following Jesus Christ’s example and that was his motivation and not self gain in the eyes of Lucie. Carton is also guilty peering into his half drank glass of liquor almost seeming for the first time like he is regretting his past choices and that life changes and reform were in store for the future.

Jack Conway was born in Graceville, Minnesota USA. Charles Dickens was born in Portsmouth, Hampshire in England. Charles Dickens was not American; Director Jack Conway who portrayed Sydney Carton as a reformed Christian, however, was American. The interpretation of Sydney Carton based on Charles Dickens’ novel of Sydney Carton was twisted by Jack Conway transforming Sydney Carton into the American Dream of goodness instead of the self-absorbed drunkard he really was. So, director Jack Conway, being an American himself, made Sydney Carton to be a Jesus Christ figure more than Charles Dickens who was not an American. Director Jack Conway added in original scenes that were not written in the original text A Tale of Two Cities to highlight Sydney Carton as a Christian to make his ultimate sacrifice perceived more in following in Christ’s footsteps and solidifying him as the American Dream. Wearing her blonde hair of innocence is good-hearted Lucie Manette. Lucie Manette’s description in the novel is exactly the American Dream of beauty. Her blonde hair, blue eyes, and Barbie-doll-like features allure the American readers and other characters in the novel to be engaged in her every action. However, Lucie Manette does not fall into the category of the American Dream’s characteristic of self-absorbedness, but shows sacrifice and true unconditional love. Lucie Manette leaves the life she has become accustomed to in order to investigate the possibility of her father being alive. Once her father was released from the Bastille, after being imprisoned for fourteen years and Lucie believing he was dead all this time, Lucie sacrifices her needs and life style to take care of her recalled-to-life father.

Then Lucie Manette and Charles Darnay fall in love. However, lawyers C.J. Stryver and Sydney Carton also entertain an infatuation with Lucie Manette. Americans are usually not faithful types; cheating is second nature and truthful openness between couples during relationship breaks, fights, and even functioning relationships is non-existent when it comes to the subject of unfaithfulness. According to TeenStatics, 74% of Americans admit that they have cheated in a relationship or on a spouse (Boehm 2006). Lucie Manette had every opportunity, especially when Sydney Carton expressed his feelings to Lucie to forget about her relationship and potential with Charles Darnay and indulge in her primal instincts, yet she acted against the way most Americans would in staying true to Charles Darnay. “Vital to Dickens was [this] idea of pure love” (Stoehr 17). Her pure love and sacrifice were contradictive of the American Dream highlighting redeeming selfless qualities and condemning self-absorbedness like Sydney Carton’s action.
Charles Darnay also does not embody the characteristics of the American Dream by sacrificing his enormous amount of wealth and prestigious family name for true love and rejecting his Evremonde family. Charles divorces the Evremonde family because of their terrible treatment of the peasants and relocates under the name Charles Darnay. The Marquis St. Evremonde is the American Dream. The Marquis St. Evremonde has an abundance of money and likes to brag by showcasing his wealth in how he dresses, travels, and lives his day to day life. The Marquis St. Evremonde is pampered by his meticulous servants. There is one scene in Jack Conway’s interpretation that is consistent with Charles Dickens’ A Tale of Two Cities text, where the Marquis St. Evremonde is seen in his bed chamber and his seven servants are dressing him for bed, brushing his teeth for him, and even tucking him into bed. The Marquis St. Evremonde in the text and movie runs over and kills a small child with his carriage and has no remorse or compassion and throws the father of the child who is holding his stomped-to-death infant a few coins to compensate for his loses. The Marquis St. Evremonde is American ways of laziness. The Marquis St. Evremonde embodies the idea of having other people do things for him and other catering to his every need. The Marquis St. Evremonde has the wealth that every American dreams of and the laziness that consumes the American lifestyle because of it. The ideal image that Americans strive for is the Marquis St. Evremonde and Charles Darnay wanted nothing to do with that image and did not want to be affiliated with slothfulness uncompassionate indulgence in wealth.

Americans are also the biggest hypocrites; we claim to have separation of church and state…so why is “in God we trust” written on the dollar bill? If there is separation, why is it illegal for homosexuals to marry? Marriage is a religious practice and union, but the Bible claims homosexuality is wrong and marriage is controlled by the government. Is every other place in the world besides America making a mockery of us? America was built on laws, rules if one will, that makes our country great. In North Dakota “It is illegal to lie down and fall asleep with your shoes on” and “beer and pretzels can't be served at the same time in any bar or restaurant,” and “It is legal to shoot an Indian on horseback, provided you are in a covered wagon.” In Utah “No one may have sex in the back of an ambulance if it is responding to an emergency call.” And, in the great state of Texas, “It is illegal for one to shoot a buffalo from the second story of a hotel,” “It is illegal to sell one’s eye,” and “Up to a felony charge can be levied for promoting the use of, or owning more than six dildos” (Maasik 433). “Even Caligula is like ‘what the fuck are you doing?’ What’s next: Hannibal Lecture having his own cooking channel?” (Williams 2002). “We stole countries with the cunning use of flags. Just sail around the world and stick a flag in. "I claim India for Britain!" And they're going "You can't claim us, we live here! All Five hundred million of us!" "Do you have a flag? ... No flag, no country!” (Izzard) It doesn’t scare me that Bush waved at Stevie Wonder, but that billions of dollars are spent in national defense and Bush almost chokes to death from a pretzel; our president, the man who is competent enough to be running our country, almost dies from snack food! And we thought Canadians are strange with their funny accents and silly currency called the Looney. Canada is like a loft apartment over a really great party (Williams 2002). God bless the USA.

The Mundane Existence of the Western Cultural Society

The Western culture is unique in its individuality. It prides itself in distinguishing that it is one of a kind whether it is through clothing, vocalizing against the majority, or becoming an extremist in whatever one is passionate in…the more socially unacceptable, the better. We like structure. We like the routine of having a stable job, feeding the kids, quick caffeine boosts like Starbucks, and easy meals like McDonalds. We have gone from producers to consumers. The American Dream is no longer working your whole life to achieve greatness from scratch…it is who can get rich the fastest doing the least amount of work as possible. America is lazy. Pop culture is God. Fashion is more important than monogamy and dogs have gone from pets to accessories. Waiting For Godot has been characterized as a strong voice of the Western Cultural milieu of the 20th century because of laziness, routine, gullibility, and quick fix nation.

Pozzo is the American Dream. He wants everything done for him no matter what the cost or who he hurts to compensate for his lazziness. In the play, Pozzo’s servant is Lucky. When Pozzo is blind in Act II and cannot get up, Pozzo instructs Vladimir and Estragon how to get lucky up to do Pozzo’s work by saying on page 100, “Well to begin with, he should pull on the rope, as hard as he likes as long as he doesn’t strangle him. He usually responds to that. If not he should give him a taste of his boot, in the face and the privates as far as possible.” So that is a great example of Pozzo going to any extreme to get what he wants and not considering the pain he is inflicting on unfortunate lucky. Pozzo is the American Dream of laziness.

Routine is Vladimir and Estragon who go through this monotonous cycle of waiting for Godot. On page 107 the reader sees their endlessness continue with the repetitive conversation of Vladimir and Estragon saying,

VLADIMIR: We have to come back to-morrow.

ESTRAGON: What for?

VLADIMIR: To wait for Godot.

They are making a mockery of the Western Society by showing the extreme version of what we do. But, instead of us waiting for Godot, we sleep, got to work, eat breakfast and lunch and dinner, go to school, etc. That is our routine and ultimately we are all waiting for Godot, but just passing the time differently.

Gullibility is Estragon. He greatly symbolizes Americans. He listens to what Vladimir says and takes it as truth without finding out for sure. In Act II on page 67, Vladimir and Estragon have a conversation that demonstrates Estragon’s gullibility. It reads,

VLADIMIR: The tree, look at the tree.

ESTRAGON: Was it not there yesterday?

VLADIMIR: Yes of course it was there. Do you not remember?
We nearly hanged ourselves from it. But you wouldn’t.
Do you not remember?

ESTRAGON: You dreamt it.

VLADIMIR: Is it possible you have forgotten already?


Estragon doesn’t check evidence or go with what his gut says happened. He only blindly follows what Vladimir says. That is the American way. We don’t check statistics. We go by hearsay. We once believed that an electrical pad that one attaches to their stomach could elicit a six pack. Estragon is also only following Vladimir with waiting for Godot. Estragon wants to leave, but believes that because Vladimir says that Godot will come tonight that he will come even though every other night Godot hasn’t.

Quick fix nation is the idea of suicide. Americans look for quicker ways to do almost everything from drive through pharmacies to the IPASS to using pills instead of therapy to fix their problems. In Act I, Estragon and Vladimir toy with the idea of hanging themselves on page 12. Their conversation reads,

VLADIMIR: What do we do now?

ESTRAGON: Wait.

VLADIMIR: Yes, but while we are waiting.

ESTRAGON: What about hanging ourselves?

VLADIMIR: Hmm. It’d give us an erection.

ESTRAGON: An erection!

VLADIMIR: Let’s hang ourselves immediately!

Suicide is a quick fix. Instead of trying to work out one’s problems and deal with the hardship of digging deep and rationalizing…suicide is the answer. Then in Act II, Estragon actually tries to use his belt to hang himself from the tree but is unsuccessful because of the belt’s short length and the trees inability to hold his weight.

All in all, Waiting for Godot was a huge metaphor for the lives of the Western Culture. Vladimir and Estragon spend their entire lives waiting for Godot which is ultimately death or God depending on one’s belief. They spend their whole days waiting for death to come and relieve them of their routines. Vladimir and Estragon try to spice matters up by running into Pozzo and Lucky which symbolizes memorable events such as marriage, birth of children, graduation…anything that marks a significant event in one’s life to change the monotony, but ultimately even after, they are left with the identical routine after their brief detour.

A Whole New World

Sylvia Plath was a poet; Samuel Beckett a play writer; Franz Kafka a novelist. All three masterful writers transformed the norm into their own interpretations and concocted their own worlds within their writings. Through their writings, any reader can identify with the themes and situations they paint with words and be unwillingly sucked into their world of upside down rules and contorted view of man and life.

Sylvia Plath’s poetry paints a picture of her sorrows she felt consumed her life. Plath writes of somber depressing situations. Through her imagery and poetic lines, she transports the reader into her world sucking the liveliness right out of the reader one word and metaphor at a time. One cannot walk away from reading Plath with a content feeling about the world and the way life unfolds. But with Sylvia Plath’s descriptions of places she writes about the reader feels as if they are there seeing what Plath is writing about.

Samuel Beckett’s play Waiting for Godot takes the reader on a seemingly endless journey with Vladimir, Lucky, Estragon, and Pozzo. This world is very much desolate and by the long extended conversations and ability to identify with the characters, the reader is sucked into the world of waiting for Godot. One feels like they are present and within the pages when Lucky gives his speech and Estragon is eating a carrot. The sadness of the repetition is a concept every reader can identify with so while reading Beckett, one feels like they are part of his twisted world.

Franz Kafka also has created his own world. His main character K. appears in a mysterious situation of reaching the castle in a village built on social status and rules. Through Kafka’s extended scenes and ability to relate to every reader with common themes most struggle with, Kafka embeds the reader into his world and one feels like they are present during the love making, the bar scenes, and the struggle to reach the castle.

All three writers have created their own worlds which include common situations and themes that every reader can identity with. Through their use of words, descriptions, imagery, and extended scenes, the reading feel as if they are part of the world in which the author created living the scenes with the characters in the books, plays, and poems.